Sociological Research Methods MCQs 2026

A cross-sectional study collects data

1. AAt one point in time✓
2. BOnly after ten years✓
3. CFrom the same people repeatedly✓
4. DOnly from archives✓

A cohort study focuses on people who share

1. AA common time-based experience or characteristic✓
2. BThe same interview answer✓
3. CNo social background✓
4. DOnly one occupation✓

Descriptive research is mainly intended to

1. AProve every causal law✓
2. BAvoid observation✓
3. CManipulate variables✓
4. DDescribe characteristics of a phenomenon✓

The unit of analysis in a study is the

1. ABibliography style✓
2. BFieldwork location only✓
3. CEntity about which conclusions are drawn✓
4. DType of computer software✓

Sociometry is most closely related to measuring

1. AChoices and relations within a group✓
2. BRainfall in villages✓
3. CChemical composition✓
4. DOnly birth rates✓

Triangulation in research means using

1. AOnly one question✓
2. BOnly census data✓
3. CNo theory at all✓
4. DMultiple methods, sources or investigators✓

Systematic error is especially dangerous because it

1. AAlways increases sample size✓
2. BBiases measurements in a consistent direction✓
3. CMakes all data qualitative✓
4. DEliminates variables✓

Random error in measurement mainly produces

1. APerfect accuracy✓
2. BA fixed bias every time✓
3. CUnpredictable inconsistency in results✓
4. DA larger population✓

Purposive sampling selects cases mainly because they

1. AFit the research purpose or criteria✓
2. BAre selected by lottery✓
3. CAre impossible to identify✓
4. DRefuse to participate✓

Snowball sampling is often useful when studying

1. AEntire census populations✓
2. BHidden or hard-to-reach groups✓
3. CRandomly numbered files✓
4. DOnly school textbooks✓

Ethnography is best described as

1. AA purely mathematical proof✓
2. BA census table✓
3. CA laboratory experiment only✓
4. DA detailed field study of a culture or group✓

A Likert scale is commonly used to measure

1. ABiological age only✓
2. BExact household income✓
3. CDegree of agreement or attitude intensity✓
4. DGeographical distance✓

Deductive reasoning usually begins with

1. ARaw data without concepts✓
2. BA theory or general proposition✓
3. CA completed index only✓
4. DA final report✓

Inductive reasoning moves from

1. ASpecific observations to general patterns✓
2. BTheory directly to a test✓
3. CPopulation to sampling frame✓
4. DConclusion to data collection✓

Qualitative research is especially concerned with

1. AOnly sample size formulas✓
2. BMechanical counting alone✓
3. CEliminating interpretation✓
4. DMeanings, experiences and context✓

Quantitative research places greater emphasis on

1. APersonal diaries only✓
2. BUnrecorded impressions✓
3. CNumerical measurement and statistics✓
4. DRejecting hypotheses✓

Coding in social research usually means

1. AAssigning categories or numbers to data✓
2. BRejecting all open answers✓
3. CSelecting villages randomly✓
4. DWriting only conclusions✓

A pilot study is conducted mainly to

1. APublish final results✓
2. BTest tools and procedure before the main study✓
3. CReplace sampling✓
4. DAvoid ethical review✓

Anonymity is strongest when

1. AThe sample is very large✓
2. BThe interview is long✓
3. CThe hypothesis is hidden✓
4. DResponses cannot be linked to identities✓

Confidentiality in research means that

1. ANo data are recorded✓
2. BOnly names are published✓
3. CIdentities are protected from disclosure✓
4. DThe sample is random✓

Informed consent means that participants

1. AUnderstand the study and voluntarily agree✓
2. BMust always be paid✓
3. CCannot withdraw later✓
4. DNeed not know the purpose✓

Primary data are collected

1. AOnly from old books✓
2. BFirsthand for the current study✓
3. COnly by government agencies✓
4. DWithout any method✓

Secondary data are data that

1. ACannot be analyzed✓
2. BAre always invalid✓
3. CCome only from interviews✓
4. DWere collected earlier by others✓

Content analysis is primarily used to study

1. ABlood samples✓
2. BLaboratory chemicals✓
3. CDocuments, media and messages✓
4. DOnly rural households✓

The first step in a sociological research process is usually

1. ACollecting field data✓
2. BFormulating the research problem✓
3. CCoding the responses✓
4. DWriting the bibliography✓

Turning an abstract concept into measurable indicators is called

1. ASampling✓
2. BCoding✓
3. CTriangulation✓
4. DOperationalization✓

The research design most suited to testing cause and effect under controlled conditions is

1. AExperiment✓
2. BCase study✓
3. CContent analysis✓
4. DLife history✓

In research terminology, a population means

1. AOnly urban residents✓
2. BA selected subgroup✓
3. CThe entire group under study✓
4. DOnly adult respondents✓

A representative subgroup selected from a population is called a

1. ASample✓
2. BVariable✓
3. CSchedule✓
4. DHypothesis✓

A sampling frame is best described as

1. AA statistical formula✓
2. BA list of all units eligible for sampling✓
3. CA type of interview✓
4. DA written consent form✓

Random sampling means that every unit has

1. AA guaranteed place in the sample✓
2. BThe same opinion as others✓
3. CNo chance of being selected✓
4. DAn equal known chance of selection✓

Stratified sampling requires the researcher to

1. AInterview only experts✓
2. BSelect cases by convenience✓
3. CDivide the population into strata first✓
4. DObserve only one community✓

An interview with fixed wording and order of questions is a

1. AStructured interview✓
2. BUnstructured interview✓
3. CFocus group✓
4. DParticipant diary✓

Open-ended questions are especially useful for collecting

1. AOnly numerical scores✓
2. BQualitative responses✓
3. CRandom numbers✓
4. DSampling frames✓

Reliability of a research instrument mainly refers to

1. AMoral acceptability✓
2. BLength of questionnaire✓
3. CConsistency of measurement✓
4. DSize of population✓

Validity in social research means that an instrument

1. AIs always short✓
2. BUses only statistics✓
3. CAvoids fieldwork✓
4. DMeasures what it claims to measure✓

Participant observation requires the researcher to

1. AUse only official records✓
2. BJoin or closely take part in the group studied✓
3. CAvoid direct contact✓
4. DMail questionnaires only✓

In non-participant observation, the researcher mainly

1. AObserves without taking an active group role✓
2. BBecomes a full member of the group✓
3. CUses only experiments✓
4. DStudies only documents✓

A case study is best defined as

1. AA national census✓
2. BA random sample of villages✓
3. CAn intensive study of one case or unit✓
4. DA statistical average✓

Survey research is especially suitable when the researcher wants to study

1. AA single biography only✓
2. BAttitudes of a large population✓
3. CChemical reactions✓
4. DOnly ancient texts✓

A census differs from a sample survey because a census

1. AUses only observation✓
2. BAvoids enumeration✓
3. CStudies only a sample✓
4. DCovers every unit of the population✓

A hypothesis is a

1. ATentative testable statement✓
2. BFinal legal judgment✓
3. CList of references✓
4. DType of sampling error✓

In causal research, the independent variable is the variable that is

1. AMeasured as the effect✓
2. BPresumed to cause change✓
3. CAlways demographic✓
4. DNever measured✓

The dependent variable is the variable that

1. AControls the sample✓
2. BRemains unobserved✓
3. CChanges as the outcome✓
4. DDefines the population✓

A control variable is used in research to

1. AReplace the hypothesis✓
2. BEliminate the population✓
3. CWrite the conclusion first✓
4. DHold a possible influence constant✓

Correlation means that two variables

1. AVary together in some pattern✓
2. BAre always causally related✓
3. CHave no measurable relation✓
4. DMust be qualitative✓

A stronger claim of causation generally requires association, nonspuriousness and

1. ALarge questionnaire size✓
2. BCorrect time order between variables✓
3. COnly one respondent✓
4. DNo theoretical framework✓

A spurious relationship is one in which

1. ATwo variables are always independent✓
2. BThe data are qualitative✓
3. CThe sample is too large✓
4. DA third factor explains the association✓

A longitudinal study examines social phenomena

1. AOnly through maps✓
2. BWithout any data✓
3. COver an extended period of time✓
4. DOnly at one moment✓

A panel study is one in which researchers study

1. ADifferent people once✓
2. BThe same respondents repeatedly✓
3. COnly printed newspapers✓
4. DOnly one institution✓

Quantitative research primarily uses

1. Anumerical data and statistical analysis to test patterns✓
2. Bunstructured interviews without coding✓
3. Cpure literary narrative only✓
4. Dexclusive reliance on personal diaries without counts✓

Qualitative research emphasizes

1. Aonly large-scale random sampling with closed questions✓
2. Bin-depth meanings, experiences and textual or observational data✓
3. Cmathematical modeling without field contact✓
4. Dhypothesis testing with controlled experiments exclusively✓

A hypothesis is

1. Aa proven universal law without testing✓
2. Ban ethical guideline for consent only✓
3. Ca testable statement predicting a relationship between variables✓
4. Da final published conclusion always✓

An independent variable is

1. Athe outcome measured in the study✓
2. Bthe control group's label only✓
3. Ca constant that never changes by definition✓
4. Dthe factor manipulated or assumed to influence another variable✓

A dependent variable is

1. Athe outcome measured to assess the effect of other factors✓
2. Bthe cause manipulated by the researcher always✓
3. Cthe sampling frame list only✓
4. Dinstitutional review board approval✓

Operationalization means

1. Aignoring measurement altogether✓
2. Bdefining abstract concepts in measurable terms✓
3. Ccollecting data without any definitions✓
4. Drejecting all quantitative indicators✓

Reliability in measurement refers to

1. Ameasuring the correct concept validity always✓
2. Bproving causal laws without data✓
3. Cconsistency of results when the same phenomenon is measured repeatedly✓
4. Dethical treatment of participants only✓

Validity in measurement refers to

1. Aconsistency without regard to correctness✓
2. Bsample size alone✓
3. Cspeed of data entry exclusively✓
4. Daccuracy in capturing the concept intended to be studied✓

Random sampling helps researchers

1. Ageneralize findings to a larger population with known probability✓
2. Bstudy only friends and acquaintances conveniently✓
3. Celiminate the need for any methodology✓
4. Dguarantee zero sampling error always✓

A survey method typically involves

1. Asecretly recording private homes without consent✓
2. Bsystematically asking respondents standardized questions✓
3. Cmanipulating laboratory chemicals only✓
4. Danalyzing ancient texts without respondents✓

Structured interviews use

1. Acompletely open conversations with no guide✓
2. Bobservation without any verbal contact✓
3. Cfixed questions asked uniformly to all participants✓
4. Dexperiments with random assignment only✓

Non-participant observation means

1. Awatching behavior without joining the group being studied✓
2. Bbecoming a full member of the community always✓
3. Cconducting only laboratory experiments✓
4. Dusing exclusively historical documents✓

A case study design focuses on

1. Amillions of respondents in one questionnaire wave only✓
2. Bintensive analysis of one unit such as a community or organization✓
3. Cvariables without any context or description✓
4. Dhypotheses that cannot be examined empirically✓

Correlation indicates

1. Aone variable always causes the other✓
2. Bno relationship exists between variables✓
3. Ctwo variables tend to vary together without proving causation✓
4. Drandom assignment has occurred✓

Spurious correlation occurs when

1. AX directly causes Y with no other factors✓
2. Bvariables are completely unrelated✓
3. Cresearch ethics are violated✓
4. Dan association between X and Y is caused by a third variable Z✓

An experiment establishes causality more convincingly by

1. Arandom assignment to treatment and control groups✓
2. Basking leading interview questions only✓
3. Cstudying one case without comparison✓
4. Dignoring control conditions entirely✓

Plagiarism in research violates ethics by

1. Aciting all sources carefully✓
2. Bsharing data openly with replication files✓
3. Cobtaining informed consent properly✓
4. Dusing others' work without proper attribution✓

Ethnography as a method originated largely in

1. Amathematical economics alone✓
2. Banthropological and sociological fieldwork emphasizing culture in situ✓
3. Castronomical observation exclusively✓
4. Dlaboratory physics experiments✓

A focus group collects data through

1. Aguided discussion among a small group of participants✓
2. Bisolated individuals without interaction always✓
3. Ccovert observation without consent by default✓
4. Dpure archival work without living subjects✓

In Pakistan, the Population Census is an example of

1. Aparticipant observation in a single village only✓
2. Ba laboratory experiment on attitudes✓
3. Clarge-scale official data collection for demographic research✓
4. Dan unstructured focus group without records✓

Mixed-methods research combines

1. Aonly one method by strict definition✓
2. Bquantitative and qualitative approaches in one study✓
3. Cstatistics without any textual data always✓
4. Dethnography without any numbers ever✓

Control variables are held constant or adjusted for to

1. Aisolate the relationship between key independent and dependent variables✓
2. Bincrease confounding in the analysis deliberately✓
3. Creplace the dependent variable entirely✓
4. Deliminate the need for sampling✓

A variable must

1. Aremain constant for all units studied✓
2. Bexist only in theoretical language without indicators✓
3. Cavoid operational definitions always✓
4. Dvary across cases and be defined for measurement✓

Statistical significance indicates

1. Athe effect is necessarily large or important practically✓
2. Bcausation is absolutely proven without design✓
3. Cresults are unlikely due to chance alone at a chosen threshold✓
4. Dethics approval has been granted✓

A null hypothesis typically states

1. Athe strongest possible causal claim✓
2. Bno relationship or no difference exists between variables✓
3. Cthe research question in affirmative form always✓
4. Dethical guidelines for participants✓

Deductive reasoning in research

1. Aderives testable hypotheses from existing theory✓
2. Bcollects data without any prior concepts always✓
3. Crefuses to use logical inference✓
4. Dignores theoretical frameworks entirely✓

Inductive reasoning in research

1. Atests hypotheses deduced from theory only without observation✓
2. Bnever uses empirical evidence✓
3. Cbegins with immutable laws without fieldwork✓
4. Dbuilds theory from observed patterns in data✓

Reflexivity in qualitative research means

1. Aignoring the observer's perspective entirely✓
2. Busing only closed-ended questionnaires✓
3. Ccritically examining how the researcher shapes the study✓
4. Drejecting all self-awareness in fieldnotes✓

Hawthorne effect suggests subjects may

1. Anever alter conduct under observation✓
2. Bchange behavior because they know they are being studied✓
3. Cbehave identically in labs and natural settings always✓
4. Dinvalidate all qualitative research permanently✓

Convenience sampling

1. Aselects readily available subjects and may limit generalizability✓
2. Bguarantees perfect representation of the population✓
3. Cuses random number tables always✓
4. Deliminates all researcher bias automatically✓

Snowball sampling is useful when

1. Aevery member has equal known probability of selection✓
2. Bthe sample must be fully representative without bias always✓
3. Conly large government censuses are analyzed✓
4. Dthe population is hard to reach and referrals chain from initial contacts✓

Sampling error refers to

1. Amistakes in data entry coding only✓
2. Bethical breaches in the field✓
3. Cdifference between sample results and true population values due to chance✓
4. Ddeliberate falsification of results always✓

A population in research terms is

1. Aonly the selected sample always✓
2. Bthe entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions✓
3. Cthe group of interviewers conducting fieldwork✓
4. Da list of variables in a hypothesis✓

Secondary data analysis uses

1. Aexisting datasets collected by others for new research questions✓
2. Bonly data gathered firsthand in the field always✓
3. Csources that cannot be verified✓
4. Dinformation forbidden by all ethics boards✓

Content analysis systematically examines

1. Alaboratory rats in mazes exclusively✓
2. Bonly live participant observation without documents✓
3. Crandom guessing without categories✓
4. Dcommunication such as media texts for patterns✓

Open-ended questions allow

1. Aonly yes/no without elaboration always✓
2. Bresearchers to avoid reading responses✓
3. Crespondents to answer in their own words✓
4. Dautomatic statistical correlation without coding✓

Closed-ended survey questions

1. Arequire essay-length answers always✓
2. Boffer fixed response categories for statistical coding✓
3. Cprohibit any comparison across cases✓
4. Deliminate quantitative analysis entirely✓

A pilot study is conducted to

1. Atest instruments and procedures before the main investigation✓
2. Bpublish final conclusions without revision✓
3. Creplace the full sample with zero data✓
4. Davoid any preliminary testing of questions✓

Longitudinal research follows

1. Adifferent random samples at one moment only✓
2. Bonly extinct populations without records✓
3. Cvariables that cannot change over time✓
4. Dthe same subjects over an extended period✓

Cross-sectional research collects data

1. Arepeatedly from the same subjects over many years always✓
2. Bonly from historical documents centuries old✓
3. Cat one point in time from a sample✓
4. Dexclusively in laboratories with no humans✓

A research design is

1. Aonly the final write-up chapter of a thesis✓
2. Bthe overall plan linking questions, data collection and analysis✓
3. Ca list of respondents' names✓
4. Dan ethical violation by definition✓

A literature review in a research project serves to

1. Asummarize existing knowledge and identify gaps for new inquiry✓
2. Breplace data collection entirely without fieldwork✓
3. Chide prior studies from readers deliberately✓
4. Deliminate the need for a research question✓

Debriefing is especially important when

1. Aonly archival historical research is conducted✓
2. Bparticipants already know every hypothesis✓
3. Cno human subjects are involved ever✓
4. Ddeception has been used in an experiment✓

Informed consent requires participants to

1. Asign away all rights without explanation✓
2. Bjoin compulsory studies without choice in all cases✓
3. Cunderstand the study's purpose, risks and right to withdraw✓
4. Dnever receive debriefing after deception✓

Confidentiality means

1. Aall names must be published in journals✓
2. Bidentities are known to the researcher but protected from public disclosure✓
3. Cparticipants cannot be tracked by anyone including researchers✓
4. Dethics boards are not involved✓

Anonymity in research means

1. Athe researcher cannot link responses to identifiable individuals✓
2. Bparticipants are famous public figures always✓
3. Cdata are sold to marketers without restriction✓
4. Dconsent is unnecessary for all studies✓

Ethical research requires

1. Adeception without debriefing always✓
2. Bpublishing private identities without permission✓
3. Cignoring vulnerable populations' protections✓
4. Dinformed consent, confidentiality and minimizing harm to participants✓

Triangulation in research means

1. Arelying on a single questionnaire only✓
2. Bavoiding comparison across sources✓
3. Cusing multiple methods or data sources to strengthen conclusions✓
4. Drejecting all qualitative data✓

A control group in an experiment

1. Aalways receives double the treatment✓
2. Bdoes not receive the treatment and provides a comparison baseline✓
3. Cis selected non-randomly by convenience only✓
4. Dreplaces the need for a hypothesis✓